Lecture Objectives

Lecture 01 Intro to Ecology

Students will be able to:

• define ecology
• distinguish among allied scientific disciplines (environmental science, conservation biology, restoration ecology, and environmental engineering) and compare their purposes with that of ecology.
• describe at least 6 ecosystem  services important to human ecology.
• define the subdisciplines of ecology.
• place the subdisciplines of ecology into a hierarchical organizational scheme based on physical scale
• explain in what manner the concept of emergent properties justifies studying ecology within an hierarchical framework.
• describe the scientific method.
• describe the application of the scientific method to ecological experimentation.

Lecture 02 Ecology and Evolution

Students will be able to:

• define evolution and distinguish between microevolution and macroevolution.
• explain the manner in which specific ecological processes, including migration, birth and death rates, age of reproduction effect the outcome of evolution and how evolution may, in turn, alter those processes.
• compare point mutations with frameshift mutations with chromosomal mutations.
• name the assumptions of natural selection and explain the process of adaptive evolution.
• distinguish between individual and population genetic variation.
• explain the ecological and evolutionary importance of genetic variation.
• explain the ecological and evolutionary importance of Hardy-Weinberg expectations.
• name and explain the assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg expectations.
• distinguish between phenotypic and genetic variation.
• define heritability, name variation that is heritable, and explain the importance of heritability to adaptive evolution.
• name the types of phenotypic variation.
• name the types of genetic variation.
• explain the manner in which partitioning the sources of genetic variation affords insights into ecology.
• explain how violations of each of the Hardy-Weinberg assumptions affects genetic variation.
• define inbreeding and explain its effect on genetic variation.
• explain the importance of population size for the rate and outcome of microevolution.
• define natural selection.
• describe the relationship between fitness and natural selection.
• explain how natural selection may result in a balanced polymorphism.
• discriminate among disruptive, stabilizing, and directional natural selection, including how each affects population phenotypic variation.
• distinguish between biological and phylogenetic species concepts.
• apply the correct species concept to particular scenarios.
• define reproductive isolation mechanisms and explain their importance in delineating a biological species.
• define biological hybridization and explain why it presents a problem to the application of the biological species concept.
• define a shared derived character and explain why a character must be both shared and derived to be useful as a criterion for delineating phylogenetic species.
• compare allopatric to sympatric speciation and apply the concepts to real-world scenarios.
• calculate effective population size for:
  1. sexually reproducing populations with other than 50-50 sex ratios.
  2. populations that experience change in size over time.

Lecture 03 Climate

Students will be able to:

• define climate and distinguish it from weather.
• relate photons to energy and to wavelength.
• diagram the electromagnetic spectrum using correct terms for portions of the spectrum.
• explain the importance of thermal radiation to the global heat budget.
• define PAR and contrast it with the visible spectrum.
• distinguish the layers of the atmosphere.
• describe the importance of the troposphere and stratosphere to the global climate.
• distinguish among the three ways in which heat energy can be transferred.
• outline the global heat budget.
• explain the greenhouse effect in terms of the global heat budget.
• explain why it is colder at the  poles than at the equator.
• diagram and explain the relationship between seasonality and the tilt and rotation of the Earth.
• define the limits to the Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle and relate those limits to the tilt of the Earth.
• relate the tilt and rotation of the Earth to solstices and equinoxes.
• explain the formation of subsidence zones and convection cells in the Earth's atmosphere.
• define the Coriolis effect and explain its effect on wind patterns globally.
• draw the areas  of winds, along with the prevailing direction within each area for the following areas:
  • Horse Latitudes, Doldrums, Trade Winds, and Westerlies
• relate global wind patterns to the development of oceanic gyres.
• explain how rain shadows come to be and describe two important rain shadows and their effects on regional climate
• explain the ENSO and compare its effects on climate with non-ENSO years.

Lecture 04 The Aquatic Environment

Students will be able to:

• list the important reservoirs and flows in the global hydrologic cycle.
• define interception.
• distinguish between soil moisture and groundwater.
• describe an aquifer.
• explain the relationship between human activity and runoff and describe the effects of excess runoff.
• define evapotranspiration.
• describe the important physical properties of water.
• describe the absorption of light by natural waters.
• explain why bodies of water freeze from the top and why the temperature of deep water is 4° C.
• describe the formation of thermal stratification using the appropriate terminology.
• explain how seasonality in temperate bodies of water can lead to turnover and the effect turnover has on photosynthetic productivity in those waters.
• explain the formation of a halocline.
• explain why water is a powerful solvent.
• explain the reason for the saltiness of the ocean.
• explain the difference between the effect of temperature on the saturation concentration of gaseous solutes versus its effect on the saturation concentration of solid solutes.
• explain why deep ocean water is, in general, not oxygen depleted but the deeper layers of lake water often are depleted.
• explain how atmospheric carbon dioxide buffers natural waters.
• explain the formation of waves and seiches.
• explain how the Sun and Moon generate ocean tides.
• define and explain neap and spring tides.
• define the intertidal zone and describe its key features as a habitat.
• define estuary and describe its key factors as a habitat.
• describe tidal overmixing and its effect on salinity in an estuary.

Lecture 05 The Terrestrial Environment

Students will be able to:

• define the stresses unique to the terrestrial environment for plants and animals.
• discuss the importance of boundary layer conditions to the process of desiccation.
• predict the changes in drag associated with emergence from an aquatic environment into the air.
• discuss the adaptations in plants and animals to the loss of buoyancy .
• describe the interception of light from the canopy to the surface of the earth.
• define the Leaf Area Index.
• name the five components of soil.
• discuss chemical and mechanical weathering.
• define parent material and humus.
• discuss the effect of leaching and erosion on soil.
• discuss the factors that affect soil color.
• relate soil texture to the sand, silt and clay content of soil.
• define loam.
• describe how soil horizons arise and give the salient characteristics of the O, A, E, B, C and bedrock layers.
• describe the way in which the moisture holding capacity of soil is divisible into saturation, field capacity, wilting point and available water capacity.
• define ion exchange capacity and discuss why cations are more likely to be retained in soils than anions.
• discuss the importance of pH to ion exchange capacity and the importance each has to the availability of soluble nutrients to plants.
• discuss the five soil formation processes (Laterization, Salinization, Podzolization, and Gelization) and the climate conditions that lead to each of them.

Lecture 06 Plant Adaptations to Land

Students will be able to:

• describe, in general terms, the new conditions life on land presented to plants.
• explain the importance of CO₂ to O₂ ratio to the function of rubisco.
• explain why the most primitive form of photosynthesis in land plants is called C₃ photosynthesis
• draw a curve that represents the response of photosynthetic rate, as measured by net CO2 uptake, to increasing PAR intensity and identify the light compensation point and the light saturation point.
• define photoinhibition
• draw a leaf cross section of a C₃ plant with epidermis, stomata, mesophyll, and cuticle.
• define transpiration.
• draw a graph with curves that represents photosynthetic rate and respiration rate changes as temperature increases and identify where T_min, T_opt, and T_max occur.
• describe the changes in photosynthesis when leaves are shaded.
• describe the short and long term responses of plants to desiccation stress and explain how each reduces the level of stress.
• describe plant adaptations to desiccation stress and explain how each reduces the level of stress.
• describe the differences between the C₄ and C₃ photosynthetic pathways
• explain how C4 photosynthesis reduces the level of desiccation stress.
• describe the differences between the CAM and C₃ photosynthetic pathways
• explain how CAM photosynthesis reduces the level of desiccation stress.
• describe the difference between micronutrients and macronutrients.
• explain the metabolic functions of six micronutrients (Iron, Manganese, Boron, Copper, Zinc, and Selenium)

Lecture 07 - Animal Adaptations

Students will be able to:

• distinguish among herbivory, carnivory, coprophagy, fungivory, omnivory, saprophagy, granivory, frugivory, and detritivory.
• explain the roles of mutualistic symbiotic microorganisms in animal nutrition
• distinguish browsing from grazing.
• name and define unique methods of insect herbivory.
• define filter feeding.
• define and give examples of essential minerals (with their general functions), amino acids, fatty acids, and vitamins (with their functions)
• define homeostasis and explain the role regulation plays in achieving a constant state.
• explain the role of negative feedback in regulation.
• distinguish between endotherms and homeotherms.
• distinguish between ectotherms and poikilotherms.
• explain the modes of heterothermy
• explain acclimatization as an adaptive response to environmental variation.
• define torpor.
• explain how countercurrent exchange and retes affect homeothermy.
• define hibernation.
• explain how supercooling adapts animals to cold temperatures.
• name and explain terrestrial animal adaptations to water shortage.
• contrast how bony fish maintain internal water balance in marine and freshwater habitats.
• explain the value of neutral buoyancy.
• name and describe the means animals use to achieve neutral buoyancy.
• define Circadian cycles and internal biological clocks.
• describe the effect of seasonal environmental cycles on animal activity.
• define critical daylength and distinguish short day responses from long day responses.

Lecture 08 Life History

Students will be able to:

• define life history as used in ecology.
• distinguish between adult and juveniles.
• explain the advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual reproduction
• describe the forms of sexual and asexual reproduction in plants and animals.
• describe sexual and asexual reproduction in fungi.
• define the terms "mating system" and "pair bonds."
• name and describe the common mating systems.
• define mate choice and describe its role in sexual selection.
• distinguish between inter- and intrasexual sexual selection.
• describe the trade-off between growth and reproductive effort.
• contrast semelparity and iteroparity and discuss the general situations that give rise to each.
• define determinate and indeterminate growth.
• explain the relationship between adult size and fecundity.
• describe the relationship between offspring success and birth size.
• distinguish between altricial and precocial offspring.
• describe the cline in reproductive effort with latitude and discuss the hypotheses proposed to explain the cline.
• distinguish between r and K selection.
• explain the relationship between r and K selection and the environment.
• describe Grimes classification system for plant life histories.

Lecture 09 Populations

Students will be able to:

• define population and explain the relationship between species and populations.
• define modular growth, clone, biomass, ramet, and genet.
• explain the impact that modular growth has on the concept of population abundance.
• discuss the importance of spatial scale to the population concept.
• define population distribution and distinguish the two major facets of distribution.
• discuss the factors that determine distribution boundaries.
• define mean and variance.
• define spatial pattern and population density.
• distinguish the three types of spatial pattern, define them in mathematical terms, and discuss the causes for each pattern.
• explain the importance of spatial pattern on the measurement and interpretation of population abundance.
• explain quadrat sampling.
• explain how the Lincoln-Peterson index can be used to estimate population size.
• define population age structure and discuss how it is displayed and how the display can be used to infer attributes of the population.
• define sex ratio and how it affects population growth and evolution.
• define dispersal and discuss its costs and benefits.
• define metapopulation and explain the importance of dispersal to the metapopulation concept.

Lecture 10 Population Growth

Students will be able to:

• define demography and describe a life table.
• give the name of and define the following symbols used in demographic studies: x, n_x, l_x, d_x, q_x, e_x, b_x, m_x, R₀, T_c.
• draw Type I, II, and III mortality curves and determine where, on the graph, the death rate is maximal and minimal.
• describe changes in age-specific death rates that lead to Type I, II, and III mortality curves.
• define life expectancy and name the elements of the life table necessary to calculate and estimation of life expectancy.
• calculate the net replacement rate from age-specific survivorship and birth rates and define net replacement rate.
• define generation time for organisms with non-overlapping generations and for organisms with overlapping generations.
• derive the geometric growth equation using the net replacement rate and use the equation to predict population growth.
• write the equation for exponential population growth and define each variable and term.
• contrast predictions of the geometric and exponential models by drawing a graph of each.
• define the intrinsic rate of natural increase and relate it to the net replacement rate.
• correctly apply either exponential or geometric population growth models to given scenarios.
• distinguish between environmental and demographic stochasticity.
• distinguish between deterministic and stochastic models.
• contrast the predictions of exponential population growth models with that of stochastic models based on exponential growth by drawing both on the same graph.
• distinguish the various reasons for population extinction.
• describe the effect of population size on the probability of population extinction
• explain the Allee effect
• explain how inbreeding increases the probability of population extinction

Lecture 11 Population Regulation

Students will be able to:

• define logistic population growth and correctly argue that it represents density-dependent population growth.
• write the equation for logistic population growth rates and define each of the variables and terms in the equation.
• draw a logistic (sigmoid) population growth curve and estimate the population growth rate at specified points on the curve using the concept of tangents to a curve.
• define asymptote, K, and r.
• name the assumptions of the logistic population growth model and predict the effect of a violation of each assumption on logistic population growth.
• define lag time and, using graphs, predict its effect on the outcome of logistic growth models.
• distinguish between density-dependence and density independence.
• distinguish between scramble and interference competition.
• explain how dispersal, social behavior, and territoriality can act as density-dependent population regulatory mechanisms.
• compare mechanisms of plant (and sessile animal) competition with mechanisms found in motile animals.

Lecture 12 Metapopulations

Students will be able to:

• define metapopulations and subpopulations.
• distinguish between core/satellite, patchy, and isolated metapopulations.
• relate the type of metapopulation to the probability of both local and metapopulation extinction.
• explain how proximity to the mainland produces the rescue effect.
• define habitat fragmentation using metapopulation concepts and explain why habitat fragmentation increases extinction probability.
• explain the reason that the persistence of patchy metapopulations depends on colonization and extinction rates.
• explain why the relationship between the proportion of patches occupied and extinction rates is linear.
• explain why the relationship between the proportion of patches occupied and colonization rates is humped.
• draw a graph of P versus E and C and predict the stable P.
• describe the effect of patch size on the stable proportion of patches occupied and explain why this effect occurs.
• describe the effect of patch isolation on the stable proportion of patches occupied and explain why this effect occurs.
• relate spatial heterogeneity to metapopulation dynamics and type.
• explain the reason that spatial and temporal heterogeneity leads to spreading of risk.
• describe Huffaker's experiment and how spatial heterogeneity stabilized the mite populations.
• explain the relationship between metapopulation dynamics and individual fecundity.
• explain the relationship between metapopulation dynamics and body size.
• describe the four levels of population organization that compose the population hierarchy.
• list the processes that are emergent properties of each level of the population hierarchy.
• distinguish between the mechanisms of subspecies divergence.
• define biogeography.
• explain how asexual species are affected by the emergent properties of the population hierarchy.

Lecture 13 Interspecific Competition

Students will be able to:

• define interactions (amensalism, commensalism, competition, predation, parasitism, herbivory, and allelopathy) among organisms in terms of benefits to each organism.
• define allelopathy.
• distinguish between symbiosis and mutualism.
• define competition in terms of vital resources.
• distinguish between interspecific and intraspecific competition.
• derive the Lotka-Volterra interspecific competition equations from the Logistic equation for population growth rate.
• derive the zero-growth isoclines for each species.
• graph the Lotka-Volterra  zero-growth isoclines in species space.
• identify the equilibrium points on the Lotka-Volterra zero-isocline graph.
• identify the regions of positive and negative population growth rate on the Lotka-Volterra zero-isocline graph.
• use the graph of Lotka-Volterra zero-growth isoclines to predict the outcome of competition between two species.
• apply the competitive exclusion principle to a given scenario.
• define the ecological niche and relate it to the competitive exclusion principle.
• distinguish between a fundamental and a realized niche
• discuss the relationship between temporal heterogeneity and the outcome of competition using examples from lecture and textbook.
• discuss the importance of gradients to the outcome of competition using examples from lecture and textbook.
• define resource partitioning and explain how it promotes coexistence among competing species.
• relate limiting similarity and character displacement.
• draw a species utilization curve and label the axes.
• draw overlapping species utilization curves and identify the limiting similarity between adjacent species.
• draw several species utilization curves that illustrate species packing and a set of curves that violate species packing and limiting similarity.
• draw and explain a graph that depicts niche overlap in two niche dimensions.
• calculate a species niche breadth from data on resource utilization.
• calculate proportional similarity from diets of two similar species.
• predict how character displacement should affect the morphology of competing species in allopatry and sympatry.
• compare r- and K-selected species with respect to expected patterns of mortality, survivorship, population size, competitive ability, fecundity, life expectancy, age of first reproduction, life history, and body size.

Lecture 14 Predation and Herbivory

Students will be able to:

• define predation
• distinguish predation from other +,- species interactions
• use the life-dinner principle to justify the expectation that prey will have more adaptations to prevent predation than predators have adaptations to facilitate predation.
• distinguish between direct and indirect evidence.
• translate the Nicholson-Bailey predation equations into English sentences.
• derive the zero-growth isoclines for predator and prey from the Nicholson-Bailey predation equations.
• graph the zero-growth isoclines in predator vs. prey space and indicate where predator and prey populations have negative and positive growth rates.
• indicate the equilibria predicted by the equations in the above graph.
• alter the prey zero-growth isocline to model prey density-dependent population regulation and predict the new equilibria that result from the alteration.
• alter the predator zero-growth isocline to model predator interference and predict the new equilibria that result from the alteration.
• draw the humped zero-growth prey isocline in the Rosenzweig-McArthur graphical predator-prey model.
• explain  the reason for the hump in the graphical model.
• draw the predator zero-growth isocline in  such a way that the model predicts a) predator extinction, b) neutral stability, and c) stable equilibrium in the graphical model.
• use the graphical model to explain the effect of prey refugia on predator-prey  systems.
• use the graphical model to explain the paradox of enrichment.
• define optimal foraging and explain the role of maximization and the role of benefit cost ratios to the concept.
• explain how the marginal value theorem can be used to explain how long  foragers should spend on a patch.
• explain why aposematic colors are anti-predation adaptations.
• define cryptic coloration and explain how it can be a predation and an anti-predation adaptation.
• define the roles of mimic and model in Batesian mimicry.
• predict and justify when, in general, Batesian mimicry becomes an ineffective strategy.
• distinguish between Batesian and Mullerian mimicry.
• predict and justify the lower limit of population sizes that promote effective Mullerian mimicry.
• explain why Mullerian mimicry is a mutualism and Batesian mimicry is a kind of parasitism.
• distinguish between catalepsis and intimidation displays
• explain the role polymorphism in outer coloring may play in avoiding predation.
• define search image and predict the impact it has on prey consumption and its role in Apostatic Selection.
• distinguish between toxins and noxious (fighting) chemicals.
• define masting and explain why it is an anti-predation strategy.
• explain the presence of plant defenses as indirect evidence for the importance of herbivory on plant growth and reproduction.
• define secondary chemicals and explain their presence in plants.
• contrast qualitative chemical defense from quantitative plant defense.
• give two examples of both quantitative and qualitative plant defense chemicals and describe their mechanisms of action.
• contrast apparent and unapparent plants and give examples of each.
• define mechanical defenses and give examples with explanations of their effect on herbivores.
• explain how failure to attract acts to defend plants.
• define reproductive inhibition and hormone-mimics as a mechanism of plant defense.
• explain how below-ground storage acts to defend plants.
• define failure to attract as a plant defense.
• contrast induced versus constitutive defenses.
• apply the term "arms race" to the long-term interactions between plants and their herbivores.
• name and explain the mechanisms of four means of detoxification of plant secondary compounds.

Lecture 15 - Symbioses:  Parasitism and Mutualism

Students will be able to:

• explain the general characteristics of a parasite.
• distinguish parasites from predators and parasitoids.
• define terms linked to parasitism (host, host range, definitive host, intermediate host, vector, and reservoir).
• distinguish between ectoparasites and endoparasites.
• distinguish between holoparasitic and hemiparasitic plants.
• define mutualism in terms of net benefits or benefit/cost ratios.
• distinguish between obligate and facultative mutualisms.
• explain the role mutualism has played in ecological theory now and in the past.
• define the Allee effect.
• compare mutualism and parasitism and explain why one might become the other over time.
• define the origin problem and explain how the relationship between parasitism and mutualism might solve the problem
• define symbiosis and give examples of mutualistic, commensal, and parasitic symbioses.
• give examples of non-symbiotic mutualistic, commensal, and parasitic interactions.
• evaluate a scenario and determine whether or not it represents a diffuse mutualism
• restate the Lotka-Volterra competition equations to describe mutualisms.
• derive the equations for the zero isoclines of both species in a mutualism from the Lotka-Volterra competition equations modified for mutualism.
• graph the zero-growth isocline equations in species space and predict where regions of positive and negative growth rate occur for each species.
• identify equilibrium points on a graph of the zero-growth isoclines and correctly identify the points as stable or unstable equilibria.
• define epidemiology
• use the simple epidemiological model presented to describe the relationship between size of the susceptible host population, transmission rate, infectious period and parasite replacement rate.
• derive  the threshold size of the susceptible population needed to sustain  the parasite population (the critical density) from the simple epidemiological model presented.
• distinguish coevolution from coadaptation.
• describe cellular defense reactions and give examples.
• describe the reasons for cyclic fluctuations in parasite populations.
• give examples of parasitism limiting the size of host populations.
• give an example of Apparent Competition due to parasitism in cervids.
• define biological control and give examples.
• explain why Myxomatosis failed to control rabbits in Australia.
• contrast mutualists with cheaters.
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in  pollinator-plant mutualisms in general and the specifics of orchid-insect, fig-wasp, and yucca-moth pollination mutualisms.
• describe the biology and costs -benefits in dispersal mutualisms.
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in cleaning mutualisms.
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in defense mutualisms.
• describe the role of beltsian bodies in the ant-plant defense mutualism.
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in the bacteria-aphid mutualism.
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in the ant-aphid mutualism.
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in the ant-fungus mutualism.
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in the plant-mycorrhizae mutualism.
• distinguish between ectomycorrhizal and VAM associations, including host types and basic biology.
• distinguish between common VAM-plant mutualism and VAM-Orchid mutualism
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in the lichen mutualism.
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in the plant-nitrogen-fixing-bacteria mutualism.
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in the coral-alga mutualism.
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in the clam-alga mutualism.
• describe the biology of and costs -benefits in the yeast-Drosophila mutualism.
• distinguish commensalism from mutualism.
• define phoresy.

Lecture 16 - Communities: Structure and Dynamics

Students will be able to:

• distinguish between biotic assemblages and communities.
• describe emergent properties of communities
• define species richness, diversity, and evenness.
• distinguish between dominance and information-based diversity indices.
• calculate the Berger-Parker, Simpson, Shannon, and Brillioun diversity indices.
• relate changes in environmental heterogeneity to changes in biodiversity.
• relate changes in environmental quality to changes in biodiversity using the concept of size symmetry.
• contrast direct with indirect effects and give examples involving competition, mutualism, and parasitism.
• explain keystone predation and apparent competition as examples of indirect effects.
• define the ecological concept of dominance.
• define keystone species and their impact on biodiversity.
• define a food web.
• define and diagram flows of material or energy between trophic levels.
• name the levels of the trophic pyramid
• define decomposers and transformers and explain the challenge they raise to the hypothesis that the trophic pyramid is an accurate depiction of natural community structure.
• distinguish top-down from bottom-up effects given scenarios involving multi-trophic level interactions.
• define and give a hypothetical example of a trophic cascade.
• correctly predict which trophic levels are competition-limited and which are limited by other trophic levels in a given scenario and assuming that the ecosystem exploitation hypothesis is operating.
• distinguish a guild from other sorts of communities.
• describe the physical structure of a forest.
• explain how zonation comes about and how the resulting edge effects affect diversity.

Lecture 17 - Community Dynamics: Succession

Students will be able to:

• define ecological succession.
• distinguish between primary and secondary succession.
• describe pioneer, intermediate, and climax seres.
• criticize Clementsian succession.
• describe  alternative models of succession (Assembly Rules, Inhibition Model, and Tolerance Model).
• contrast Markov Models of succession with Clementsian succession.
• describe Horn's Replacement Model of succession.
• explain the effect of disturbance on succession and the intermediate disturbance hypothesis
• define restoration ecology and relate the discipline to various concepts of succession.
• explain the difference in the views of communities held by Clements and Gleason.

Lecture 18 - Ecosystems

Students will be able to:

• define ecosystems and emergent properties associated with ecosystems.
• list, define and relate ecosystem measurements (biomass, energy flow, and nutrient flow) to ecosystem emergent properties.
• define standing crop and distinguish it from productivity.
• describe turnover within ecosystems.
• explain how the laws of thermodynamics constrain energy and material flows in ecosystems.
• define primary production.
• describe the methods for determining primary production in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
• relate standing crop to production.
• distinguish gross and net primary production.
• relate net primary production to net biomass change.
• explain the lack of positive correlation between primary productivity and standing crop.
• define production efficiency and state general levels of efficiency (both for GPP and NPP).
• describe the factors that control terrestrial and marine primary productivity.
• define eutrophication and list the anthropogenic reasons for it.
• list the nutrients most likely to limit GPP in terrestrial and aquatic systems.
• define secondary production.
• distinguish between herbivores and detritivores.
• distinguish between gross and net secondary productivity.
• relate primary and secondary producer efficiency to Lindeman efficiency.
• compare secondary production in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
• describe the factors that limit secondary productivity.
• define nutrient cycling and associated terms (nutrient pool, flux rate, source, sink).
• diagram the global carbon, phosphorous, and nitrogen cycles.
• explain the reason for selection of carbon, phosphorous, and nitrogen cycles.

Lecture 19 Landscape Ecology

Students will be able to:

• define landscape ecology and distinguish patch from matrix.
• contrast inherent edges with induced edges.
• explain how edges lead to borders and the types of borders that are formed.
• relate edge-effect importance to patch shape.
• explain the community composition of islands as a balance between immigration and extinction of community members.
• relate species turnover to equilibrium species richness.
• explain the effect of distance between patches and patch size on extinction and colonization rates.
• explain the effect of stepping stones on equilibrium species richness.
• explain the target and rescue effects.
• state the species-area relationship in English and as a formula and derive the linear form of the equation.
• state the hypotheses tested by Simberloff and Wilson and the means used to test them.
• discuss the results of Simberloff and Wilson's experiment.
• compare landscape ecology with both island biogeography and metapopulation modeling.
• define disturbance and disturbance regime.
• relate disturbance regime to landscape alteration.
• give several examples of types of natural disturbance and types of human disturbance.
• distinguish between the types of fires.
• compare the landscape effects of the different fire types.
• explain how fire suppression alters fire regime.

Lecture 20 Terrestrial Ecosystems

Students will be able to:

• relate the biome concept to the ecosystem concept.
• explain the basis for the Holdridge Life Zone classification system for terrestrial biomes.
• list the combinations of mean annual temperature and mean annual precipitation that do not occur in terrestrial environments and explain why they do not occur.
• explain the important characteristics of the tropical, temperate, boreal, and polar climatic zones and give the latitudinal range of each.
• describe the Mediterranean climate and where it occurs
• describe the continental, oceanic, and montane effects on climate.
• describe a rain shadow and its effects on the biomes in the shadow.
• distinguish between a tree and a shrub
• list the significant features, alternative names, and locations of the following biomes:
  • Tropical Rain Forest.
  • Tropical Deciduous Forest.
  • Tropical Savanna.
  • Desert.
  • Temperate Deciduous Forest.
  • Temperate Shrubland.
  • Grassland.
  • Boreal Forest.
  • Tundra.
  • Temperate Rain Forest.
  • Alpine Biome.
  • Coastal Pine Forest
• describe the vertical zonation of forests
• distinguish between epiphytes and lianas.
• explain why drought deciduous plants are adapted to water stress.
• explain how succulents, root succulents, and deciduous shrubs are adapted to dry conditions.
• describe the adaptations of xeric and sclerophyllous plants.
• explain the importance of permafrost to boreal forest and tundra biomes.
• Explain the processes that give rise to Stripes, Frost Hummocks, Polygons, and Solifluction Terraces in tundra ecosystems.

Lecture 21 Aquatic Ecosystems

Students will be able to:

• distinguish between lentic and lotic ecosystems.
• distinguish between ponds and lakes.
• describe the ways in which lake basins form.
• distinguish between nekton and plankton.
• describe how thermal lake stratification occurs and breaks down.
• list the layers of a thermally stratified lake from top to bottom.
• explain overturn.
• relate thermocline formation to primary productivity in the lake.
• explain the formation of anoxic conditions in the hypolimnion.
• describe the photic zonation of a lake.
• distinguish between the littoral zone and the limnetic zone of a lake.
• define the compensation depth.
• distinguish between  oligotrophic, dystrophic, and eutrophic lakes.
• distinguish between obligate and facultative hydrophytes.
• describe the development of wetlands and their structure.
• list the key characteristics of marshes, swamps, riparian woodlands, and peatlands.
• distinguish among the several types of peatlands (bog, blanket mire, quaking bog, and fen).
• describe the formation of a perched water table.
• describe the major flooded grasslands and savannas in the world.
• describe human impacts on flooded grasslands.
• define a watershed.
• describe stream order and define first and second order streams.
• describe the importance of flow rate to lotic ecosystems.
• distinguish between riffle and pool.
• distinguish between autochthonous and allochthonous production.
• describe the feeding adaptations of stream-dwelling invertebrates.
• explain stream drift.
• define an estuary.
• describe the stresses estuaries place on the organisms that inhabit them and the adaptations to those stresses.
• describe barrier islands and lagoons.
• list the major characteristics of the following marine zones
  • intertidal
  • pelagic
  • neritic
  • oceanic
  • benthic
• distinguish between the littoral and supralittoral zones and describe the stresses on organisms living in each.
• list the characteristics of the
• rocky intertidal
• sandy beach
• mudflat
• salt marsh
• mangrove forest
• distinguish between infauna and epifauna
• describe meiofauna
• explain the reasons for the high productivity of salt marshes, mangrove forests, mudflats, and the rocky intertidal
• explain the reasons for the modest productivity of sandy beaches.
• define the vertical zones used to stratify the oceanic zone.
• describe the benthos.
• describe the formation of volcanic vents.
• explain the reasons for the large variation in productivity found within the pelagic photic zone.
• explain neritic zone productivity.
• describe a coral reef and how it is built.
• distinguish among the types of coral reefs (barrier, patch, fringing, and atoll)
• explain the reasons for the great contrast between coral reef productivity and the productivity of the surrounding waters.
• describe the allochthonous and autochthonous inputs into benthic productivity.
• describe vent community trophic structure and the source of  vent primary productivity.
• explain why vents are nutrient-rich environments.

Lecture 22 Diversity Patterns

Students will be able to:

• explain how the laws of thermodynamics constrain energy and material flows in ecosystems.
• define primary production.

Lecture 23 Human Population Growth

Students will be able to:

• explain how the laws of thermodynamics constrain energy and material flows in ecosystems.
• define primary production.

Lecture 24 Biodiversity & Sustainability

Students will be able to:

• explain how the laws of thermodynamics constrain energy and material flows in ecosystems.
• define primary production.

Lecture 25 Climate Change

Students will be able to:

• explain how the laws of thermodynamics constrain energy and material flows in ecosystems.
• define primary production.

Laboratory Exercise Objectives

Laboratory 01   Introduction to Spreadsheets

• Students will be able to:
• create, save, and submit MS Excel files via email.
• locate the menubar and look up cells using R1C1 notation.
• enter formulae using the command line.
• use the toolbar.
• use both absolute and relative cell references.
• use the sort function.
• use the copy and copy (down, right) function.
• use advanced functions (mean, square root, Naperian logarithm, Pi,
• calculate values from expressions using summation notation.

Laboratory 02   Spreadsheet Graphics

Students will be able to:

• distinguish between categorical and numeric data
• distinguish between  meristic and metric data.
• use MS Excel to construct a frequency table with an array functions.
• select appropriate group sizes (category boundaries) to improve the utility of frequency tables and histograms.
• create new MS Excel workbooks and worksheets.
• recognize histograms, bar charts, line graphs, and scatter plots.
• pick the appropriate means of presenting data graphically from among histograms, bar charts, line graphs, and scatter plots.
• create histograms, bar charts, line graphs, and scatter plots from raw data, including choosing appropriate axes units.
• label the axes and the overall graph and present an appropriate legend on histograms, bar charts, line graphs, and scatter plots.
• describe in words the relationship between the dependent and independent variables depicted.

Laboratory 03  Estimating Population Size

Students will be able to:

• describe the effect of motility (sessile versus mobile organisms) on population size estimation techniques
• define mark-recapture technique.
• name capture and marking techniques for mammals, birds, amphibians, insects and molluscs.
• apply the Lincoln/Peterson index to data to estimate population size.
• calculate the standard deviation and 95% confidence limits for the Lincoln/Peterson index.
• apply the Schnabel index to data to estimate population size.
• apply the Jolly index to data to estimate population size.
• calculate an estimation of the time-specific survivorship rates and births based on the and Jolly index.
• calculate the equal-catchability index and, based on this calculation, draw the correct conclusion about catchability of the individuals in the sampled population.

Laboratory 04  Demography

Students will be able to:

• give the name of and define the following symbols used in demographic studies: x, n_x, l_x, d_x, q_x, e_x, b_x, m_x, R₀, T_c.
• set up a life table from a given set of birth and death dates.
• calculate age-specific survivorship, mortality, mortality rate, and life expectancy.
• calculate the age-specific birth rate from the above data with the addition of age-specific data on natality.
• calculate the population net replacement rate and approximate generation time.

Laboratory 05  Spatial Pattern in the Forest

Students will be able to:

• distinguish among random, uniform, and aggregated spatial patterns.
• present a cogent argument for the causative relationship between competition and uniform spacing.
• present a cogent argument for the causative relationship between spatial heterogeneity and clumped spacing.
• identify trees as members of the forest canopy or as members of the understory.
• lay out a quadrat and sample it in a forest.
• calculate the variance-to-mean ratio from quadrat data.
• using the poisson distribution, calculate the expected frequency distribution of tree densities among quadrats assuming randomly dispersed trees.
• using the chi-square distribution, calculate the probability that the trees are distributed randomly among quadrats.
• evaluate the spatial distribution of trees in the quadrats sampled using the results from the three calculations above.
• point-quarter sample nearest-neighbor distances along a transect line in a forest.
• plot nearest-neighbor distance versus total trunk areas (at dbh) for nearest-neighbors.
• fit the distance - size data points to a line using least squares.
• evaluate the evidence for uniform spacing and competition among trees from the graph and estimate of slope from linear model.

Laboratory 06  Functional Response by Predators

Students will be able to:

• distinguish among the types I, II, and III predator functional response curves using both text and graphic representations.
• derive the linear form of the type II predator functional response equation.
• explain the effect of the shape of the type III predator functional response curve on predator choice when alternative prey types are available and on the stability of predator-prey systems.
• fit Type I and Type II predator functional response models to data collected in class using sums of squares.
• correctly choose the best model and state the criterion used to make the choice.